Shiripuno Amazon Lodge

Tag: The Yasuni National Park

  • Frogs of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador

    Frogs of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador

    Learn about the Frogs living in the Amazon Rainforest of Ecuador.

    We invite you to check in the fascinating world of the Frogs of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador

    Until three decades ago, the site considered as the most diverse in the world in amphibians and reptiles was the town of Santa Cecilia, The studies while the forest was being deforested and the soil moved with excavators in 1978. in Sucumbíos, Ecuador.

    Frogs of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador
    Bromeliad Tree Frog

    In a closer region with high species richness, Leticia in the Amazon Colombia reported 98 species of anurans species.

    Another remote region with high species richness reported 111 species of amphibians for the Manú National Park in Peru.

    The next area with an exceptional diversity of amphibians in the Yasuní National Biosphere, where more than 130 species of amphibians have been recorded in a single locality.

    Upon seeing all these comparisons, the high richness of amphibian, as well as the extreme concentration of diversity in a small area, clearly indicates the importance of the Yasuní, it is mandatory to conserve one of the richest herpetofauna communities in the entire world.

    There are many species frogs that remain to be described for science, we know little or nothing about their natural history of Amazonian amphibians, their state of conservation and risk of extinction in the face of factors such as the destruction of habitats or climate changes at local, regional and global scales

    Frogs of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador
    Trachycepahlus Tree Frog ~ Shiripuno Lodge ~ Amazon Herping Week

    The Ambihians Numbers 

    The local diversity (alpha diversity) of amphibians in Ecuador reaches its highest value in the Tropical Amazonian Humid Forest.
    The endemism in the Amazon Tropical Rainforest in Ecuador rach only 15.9 %.
    The greatest species richness is concentrated in the Amazonian provinces: Napo, Sucumbíos, and Pastaza. Notably, the diversity of the province of Napo (199 species) surpasses that of entire countries such as Argentina or Canada.

    Frogs of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador
    Shiripuno Lodge ~ The Amazon Horned Rain Frog, it’s a ground-dweller amphibian using its camouflage waits for its prey to pass by, the sit-and-wait technique is used by many species of the Amazon Rainforest.

    Conservation of the Frogs in the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador

    About 19 amphibian species that were unknown to science up to that time. Ten of these species have been described in recent years based on specimens collected in Ecuador

    • A species of toad: Rhaebo ecuadoriensis
    • Five species of tree frogs: Osteocephalus Yasuni, Boana alfaroi, Boana maculateralis, Boana nympha, and Dendropsophus shiwiarum
    • A species of rocket frog Hyloxalus yasuní
    • Three species of cutish frogs Pristimantis aureolineatus, Pristimantis omeviridis, Pristimantis waoranii.

    Still, there are to describe at least three species of the genus of toads Rhinella, a Boana tree frog, at least two species of cutin frogs Pristimantis.

    Nine species were reported for Ecuadorian Amazon Rainforest, including frogs like:

    • Noblella myrmecoides.
    • Pristimantis orcus.
    • Pristimantis eurydactylus.
    • Pristimantis skydmainos.
    • Dendropsophus delarivai.
    • Cochranella ritae.
    • Rhaebo guttatus.

    Besides, very rare records for the country, such as the Gastrotheca longipes, Dendropsophus miyatai, Cochranella resplendens.

    Amazon Marsupial Tree-Frog (Gastrotheca longipes) in the Yasuni

    In comparison with other Amazonian sites very diversified and well sampled, the anuran species richness of Ecuador It is greater in all cases.

    Frogs of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador
    The families of amphibians with the highest number of species are frogs Hylidae arboreal, Strabomantidae land frogs, Bufonidae toads, and Leptodactylidae thin-toed frogs, followed closely by members of the Poisonous frogs (Aromobatidae and Dendrobatidae families)

    List of Frogs you can find the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador

    Anywhere in the Rainforest, eventually you will cross with a frog but if you are trying to find them as soon as you arrive. First, get your bearings right, let know others where are you heading.

    Family: Aromobatidae, Nurse Frogs, Jumping Frog

    • Allobates femoralis, Jumping frog with bright thighs
    • Allobates fratisenescus, Mera Jumping Frog
    • Allobates insperatus, Santa Cecilia Jumping Frog
    • Allobates kingsburyi, Jumping Frog from the Topo River
    • Allobates trilineatus, Trilineated Jumping Frog
    • Allobates zaparo, Jumping Frog Zápara

    Family: Bufonidae Toads, Jambatos, Harlequin Frogs

    • Amazophrynella siona, Sapito Siona
    • Atelopus boulengeri, Jambato of Boulenger
    • Atelopus palmatus, Jambato of Andersson
    • Atelopus planispina, Jambato of Planispina
    • Atelopus spumarius, Jambato Amazónico
    • Rhaebo ecuadorensis, Ecuadorian Giant Toad
    • Rhaebo guttatus, Cuyabeno Giant Toad
    • Rhinella ceratophrys, cuckold Termite Toad
    • Rhinella dapsilis, Sapo orejón
    • Rhinella festae, Toad Valley Santiago
    • Rhinella margaritifera, Sapo common South American
    • Rhinella marina, Cane toad
    • Rhinella poeppigii, Toad of Moyobamba
    • Rhinella proboscidea, Toad snout
    • Rhinella roqueana, Toad of Roque

    Family: Centrolenidae, Glass Frog

    • Centrolene charapita, Frog of c Ristal charapita
    • Cochranella resplendens, Glass frog resplandeciente
    • Espadarana durrellorum, Rana crystal iaspidiense Jambué
    • Hyalinobatrachium, Rana crystal Yuruani
    • Hyalinobatrachium munozorum, Glass Frog Santa Cecilia
    • Hyalinobatrachium pellucidum, Glass frog fantasma
    • Hyalinobatrachium ruedai, Rana crystal Rueda
    • Hyalinobatrachium yaku, frog yaku
    • Nymphargus glass chancas , Crystal tree frog from Peru,
    • Nymphargus cochranae, Crystal frog from Cochran,
    • Nymphargus laurae, Crystal frog from Laura,
    • Nymphargus mariae, Crystal frog from Maria
    • Rulyrana flavopunctata, Yellow spotted glass frog,
    • Rulyrana mcdiarmidi, Crystal frog from the Jambue River,
    • Teratohyla amelie, Amelie crystal frog,
    • Teratohyla midas, Aguarico
    • Vitreorana ritae glass frog, black-spotted glass frog

    Family: Ceratophryidae, Bocon frogs

    • Ceratophrys cornuta, Great Horned toad
    • Ceratophrys testudo, Ecuadorian toad

    Family: DendrobatidaeFamily: Dendrobatidae Poisonous Frogs, Rocket Frogs

    • Ameerega frogs bilinguis, poison frog ecuatoriana
    • Ameerega hahneli, poison frog Yurimaguas
    • Ameerega parvula, poisonous frog Sarayacu
    • Excidobates captivus, poisonous frog Santiago
    • Hyloxalus cevallosi river, Rana rocket Palanda
    • Hyloxalus elachyhistus, Rana rocket Loja
    • Hyloxalus italoi, Rana rocket Pastaza
    • Hyloxalus maculosus, Rana rocket Puyo
    • Hyloxalus nexipus, Frog rocket from Los Tayos
    • Hyloxalus sauli, Rana rocket from Santa Cecilia
    • Hyloxalus yasuni, Rana rocket from Yasuní
    • Leucostethus fugax, Frog from Pastaza
    • Ranitomeya reticulata, Reddish poisonous frog
    • Ranitomeya variabilis, Poisonous frog from yellow lines
    • Ranitomeya ventrimaculata, Poisonous frog from Sarayacu

    Family: Eleutherodactylidae Immigrant frog

    • Adelophryne adiastola, Frog of Yapina

    Family: Hemiphractidae, Marsupials Frogs and related

    • Gastrotheca andaquiensis, Marsupials Frog of Andaqui
    • Gastrotheca longipes, Marsupials Frog of Pastaza
    • Gastrotheca testudinea, Marsupials Frogof Jimenez de la Espada
    • Gastrotheca weinlan dii, Weinland Marsupials Frog
    • Hemiphractus bubalus, Triangular head frog from Ecuador
    • Hemiphractus helioi, Triangular head frog from Cuzco
    • Hemiphractus proboscideus, Triangular head frog from Sumaco
    • Hemiphractus scutatus, Triangular head frog horned incubator

     

    Family: Hylidae,  Treefrogs

    • Agalychnis buckleyi, Buckley monkey frog
    • Agalychnis hulli , Amazon monkey frog
    • Boana alfaroi, Alfaro tree frog
    • Boana almendarizae, Almendáriz tree frog
    • Boana boans, Gladiator frog
    • Boana calcarata, Spur tree frog
    • Boana cinerascens, Frog granosa
    • Boana fasciata, Gunther tree frog
    • Geographical frog, Geographical frog
    • Boana lanciformis, Common lanceolate frog
    • Boana maculateralis, Spotted tree frog
    • Boana nympha, tree frog nymph
    • Boana punctata, dotted frog
    • Boana tetete, Tree frog of the Tetetes
    • Cruziohyla craspedopus, Amazonian leaf frog
    • Dendropsophus bifurcus, Small clown frog
    • Dendropsophus bokermanni, Bokermann tree frog
    • Dendropsophus brevifrons, tree Frog of Crump
    • Dendropsophus marmoratus, Infant marmorea
    • Dendropsophus minutus, yellow Infant común
    • Dendropsophus miyatai, tree Frog of Miyata
    • Dendropsophus parviceps, Infant caricorta
    • Dendropsophus reticulatus, Infant reticulada
    • Dendropsophus rhodopeplus, Infant bandeada
    • Dendropsophus riveroi, tree Frog of Rivero
    • Dendropsophus sarayacuensis, Frog of Sarayacu
    • Dendropsophus shiwiarum, Infant shiwiar
    • Dendropsophus triangulum, Triangular frog
    • Hyloscirtus albopunctulatus, White spot torrent frog
    • Hyloscirtus phyllognathus, Roque torrent frog
    • Nyctimantis rugiceps, Canelos tree frog
    • Osteocephalus alboguttatus, Sarayacu hull frog
    • Osteocephalus buckleyi, Buckley hull frog
    • Osteocephalus cabrerai, Cabrera hull frog
    • Osteocephalus cannatellai, Helmet frog Cannatella
    • Osteocephalus deridens, Mocking Helmet Frog
    • Osteocephalus festae, Helmet frog of Festa
    • Osteocephalus fusciis, Napo
    • Osteocephalus mutabor helmet frog, Pucuno helmet frog
    • Osteocephalus planiceps, Arboreal helmet frog
    • Osteocephalus taurinus, Taurine hull frog
    • Osteocephalus verruciger, Verrucose hull frog
    • Osteocephalus vilmae, Vilma helmet frog
    • Osteocephalus yasuni, Yasuni hull frog
    • Phyllomedusa coelestis, Frog monkey celestial
    • Phyllomedusa palliata, Frog monkey jaguar
    • Phyllomedusa tarsius, Frog monkey lemur
    • Phyllomedusa tomopterna, Frog monkey green orange
    • Phyllomedusa vaillantii, Frog monkey with white lines
    • Scinax cruentomma, Rain frog from the Aguarico river
    • Scinax funereus, Moyabamba rain frog
    • Scinax garbei, Trumpet rain frog
    • Scinax ruber, Frog of rain listed
    • Spheenorhynchus carneus, Lemon tree frog
    • Sphaenorhynchus dorisae, Leticia lake frog
    • Sphaenorhynchus lacteus, Milk lake frog
    • Tepuihyla tuberculosa, Canelos owl frog
    • Trachycephalus coriaceus, Surinam horn frog
    • Trachycephalus cunauaru, Tuberculous hull frog
    • Trachycephalus macrot is, Pastaza dairy frog

    Family: Leptodactylidae Gualag frogs, Smoked rhea, Túngara rheas and related

    • Adenomera andreae, André terrestrial frog
    • Adenomera hylaedactyla, Napo terrestrial frog
    • Edalorhina perezi, Rana vaquita
    • Engystomops petersi, Petersana sparrow-like frog
    • Laptodactylus discodactylus, Vanzolini terrestrial frog
    • Leptodactylus knudseni, Ground toad amazónico
    • Leptodactylus leptodactyloides, Rana land común
    • Leptodactylus mystaceus, toad-frog terrestrial común
    • Leptodactylus pentadactylus, Rana land gigante
    • Leptodactylus petersii, Rana termitera of Peters
    • Leptodactylus rhodomystax, terrestrial frog Boulenger
    • Leptodactylus stenodema, terrestrial frog Moti
    • Leptodactylus wagneri, terrestrial frog Wagner
    • Lithodytes lineatus, Rana land rayada

    Familia: Microhylidae Frogs Leaf Litters

    • Chiasmocleis anatipes, Leaf litter frog from Santa Cecilia
    • Chiasmocleis antenori, Leaf litter frog from Ecuador
    • Chiasmocleis bassleri, Leaf-nosed frog beetle
    • Chiasmocleis parkeri, Frog leaf litter of Parker
    • Chiasmocleis tridactyla, Peruvian leaf litter frog
    • Chiasmocleis ventrimaculata, Pastaza river leaf frog
    • Ctenophryne geayi, Brown leaf frog Bolivian hibiscus, Bolivian leaf frog
    • Synapturanus rabus, Colombian leaf frog

    Family: Pipidae Surinam toad

    • Pipa pipa, Surinam toad

    Family: Ranidae comunes

    • Rana palmipes, Common Frog River Amazonas

    Family: Strabomantidae frogs cutín

    • Hypodactylus nigrovittatus, fat frog amazónica
    • Noblella myrmecoides, southern frog quixensis Loreto
    • Oreobates, Sapito loudmouth amazónico
    • Pristimantis acuminatus, Cutin puntiagudo
    • Pristimantis albujai, Cutin of Albuja
    • Pristimantis altamazonicus, Cutin amazónico
    • Pristimantis altamnis, Cutin of Carabaya
    • Pristimantis aureolineatus, Cutin of golden band
    • Pristimantis barrigai, Cutín de Barriga
    • Pristimantis brevicrus, Cutín of Andersson
    • Pristimantis carvalhoi, Cutín de Carvalho
    • Pristimantis churuwiai, Cutín of Churuwia
    • Pristimantis citriogaster, Cutí n belly amarillo
    • Pristimantis conspicillatus, Cutin of Zamora
    • Pristimantis croceoinguinis, Cutin Santa Cecilia
    • Pristimantis Delius, Cutin coffee rayado
    • Pristimantis diadematus, Cutin of diadema
    • Pristimantis enigmaticus, Cutin enigmático
    • Pristimantis Galdi, Cutin green amazónico
    • Pristimantis katoptroides, Cutin of Puyo
    • Pristimantis kichwarum, Cutin kichwa
    • Pristimantis lacrimosus, Cutin lanthanites llorón
    • Pristimantis, Cutin metálico
    • Pristimantis librarius, Cutin spots cafes
    • Pristimantis limoncochensis, Cutin of Limoncocha
    • Pristimantis luscombei, Cutin of Loreto
    • Pristimantis malkini, Cutin the Ampiyacu
    • Pristimantis martiae river, Cutin of Martha
    • Pristimantis matidiktyo, Cutin eye reticulados
    • Pristimantis metabates, Cutin of Chiriaco
    • Pristimantis miktos, Cutin Mezclado
    • Pristimantis minimus, Cutin Diminuto
    • Pristimantis nigrogriseus, Cutin of Baños
    • Pristimantis omeviridis, Cutín de Tambococha
    • Pristimantis orestes, Cutín de Urdaneta
    • Pristimantis orphnolaimus, Cutín de La go Agrio
    • Pristimantis paululus, Cutin of estribaciones
    • Pristimantis peruvianus, Cutin of Perú
    • Pristimantis petersi, Cutin of Peters
    • Pristimantis prolatus, Cutin oculto
    • Pristimantis pseudoacuminatus, Cutin of Sarayacu
    • Pristimantis quaquaversus, Cutin the Coca
    • Pristimantis rubicundus river, Cutin rubicundo
    • Pristimantis skydmainos, Cutin of Manu
    • Pristimantis trachyblepharis, Cutin strip blanca
    • Pristimantis variabilis, Cutin variable
    • Pristimantis ventrimarmoratus, Cutin belly marmoleado
    • Pristimantis waoranii, Cutin waorani
    • Pristimantis Yantzaza, Cutin of Yantzaza
    • Strabomantis cornutus, Cutin bocón of cuernos
    • Strabomantis sulcatus, Cutin bocón of Nauta

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  • Insects of the Amazon Rainforest

    Insects of the Amazon Rainforest

    Learn about the Insects of the Amazon Rainforest.

    The Insects of the Amazon Rainforest
    The Amazon Rainforest home of millions of Insects. View of towards the south in the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve. All the forest in the distance is lacking protection.

    The Insects of the Amazon Rainforest are the most diverse group of creatures living, adapted to live everywhere you look in the forest. these forest creatures can be found in different shapes and colors.

    The Amazon Rainforest Insects are exceptionally diverse, sometimes considered as the most successful creatures living in the forest. The Insects in the Amazon Rainforest are greater in numbers than in any other class of animals.

    It is not surprising that the Amazon Rainforest, a place containing more diversity than anywhere else, contains a fantastic assemblage of colorful, strange and interesting insects.

    The Insects of the Amazon Rainforest
    Long-horned Beetle visiting the Blacklight in the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve in Ecuador.

    Many species of the Insects of the Amazon Rainforest are capable of powered flight, insects can navigate the often complicated habitats of the Amazon Rainforest to find food, water, and mates.

    Insect Metamorphosis Stages:

    Complete Metamorphosis consists of four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. However, the Incomplete Metamorphosis consists of three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The main difference: Complete Metamorphosis consists of a very active, ravenously eating larva and an inactive pupa whereas incomplete metamorphosis consists of a nymph, which resembles a miniature adult.

    The Insects of the Amazon Rainforest
    Complete Metamorphosis consists of four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. However, the Incomplete Metamorphosis consists of three stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The main difference: Complete Metamorphosis consists of a very active, ravenously eating larva and an inactive pupa whereas incomplete metamorphosis consists of a nymph, which resembles a miniature adult.

    Complete Metamorphosis occurs in wasps, ants, and fleas while Incomplete Metamorphosis occurs in termites, praying mantis, and cockroaches.

    Habitats to find Insects in the Amazon Rainforest.

    • Varzea, seasonally floodplain along the major rivers.
    • Terra firme, a high forest where flood records over 200 years.
    • Forest Swamp, Swampy areas along rivers and oxbow lakes.
    • Forest Streams, collects all water from rainfall, some rocky.
    • Moriche Swamp,  a dense population of palm and wild ginger.
    • Oxbow lakes, Shortcuts leave behind by the rivers

    The Easy Orders of Insects living in the Amazon Rainforest.

    Learn some of the Orders of Insects living in the Amazon Rainforest.

    • Diptera (Flies & Mosquitoes)

    Hindwings are reduced to tiny knobs (halters). They use one pair of wings. They are Holometabolous

    • Lepidoptera (Moths & Butterflies)

    All have four large wings, covered by scales. Often one of the colorful Insects of the Amazon Rainforest.

    The Insects of the Amazon Rainforest
    Ithomidae Butterfly

    • Hymenoptera (Bees, Wasp, Ants)

    Head shaped like a beak, with chewing mouthparts. Body not exceptionally soft, often with a narrow (snatched) “waist. They have stingers! 🙁 They are Holometabolous.

    Family Formicidae
    The Insects of the Amazon Rainforest
    Ectatomma Ants feeding on Maxillaria orchid. Yasuni Biosphere Reserve in Ecuador.

    • Coleoptera (Beetles)

    Four wings; the pairs thickened or hardened (elytra). They are Holometabolous

    Family Curculionidae
    The Insects of the Amazon Rainforest
    Palm Weevil at the Shiripuno Amazon Lodge, Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador
    Family Cerambycidae
    The Insects of the Amazon
    Long-horned Beetle at the Shiripuno Amazon Lodge, Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador.

    Shiripuno Amazon Lodge is a great place to Watch the Insects of the Amazon Rainforest.

    All photos were taken in the Shiripuno Amazon Lodge in the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, northeast Ecuador, known for exceptional animal diversity with a diverse number of primates, frogs, birds, and, of course, insects.

    We organize Insect photography tours with our guides, photographers of many of these insects, and take a family vacation in the world’s largest home of wildlife, the Amazon Rainforest.

    The Insects of the Amazon
    Amazon Nature Tours
    Eight Days $1,650
    Shiripuno Amazon Lodge. Yasuni, Ecuador
    In Shiripuno Amazon Lodge you can visit an extensive trail network for observing a high diversity of Amazon Jungle monkeys. In fact, the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve was founded to protect the diversity of life. With your Private guide (as standard), you will take Amazon jungle tours in the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve and you can choose from the greatest number of options in Amazonia.

     

    • Orthoptera (Grasshoppers & Crickets)

    Four wings, front ones thickened. Jumping hind legs. Hind wings, when open, spread like fans. Sound producers.

    The Insects of the Amazon
    Grasshopper at the Shiripuno Amazon Lodge, Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador

    • Blattodea (Cockroaches & Termites)

    Flattened body, long antennae, and no enlarged legs Head under throated.

    The Insects of the Amazon
    Blattodea at the Shiripuno Amazon Lodge, Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador

    • Dermaptera ( Earwigs)

    Short-winged covers and with abdominal forceps “pincer tails”

    • Odonata (Dragonflies & Damselflies)

    Juvenile: aquatic. Enormous eyes. Two pairs of membranous wings were similar in size and texture. Wings cannot be folded.

    Dragonflies – Wings held folded vertically above the abdomen.
    Damselflies – Front wings larger than hind ones. Abdomen with two or three long filaments.

    Insects of the Amazon Rainforest
    Dragonfly at the Shiripuno Amazon Lodge, Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador

    • Hemiptera (True Bugs, Aphids, Cicadas, Leafhoppers)

    Sucking mouthparts. Two pairs of wings either: lie flat on the back at rest, forming an “X”; held straight along back, or absent.

    Ciccada at the Shiripuno Amazon Lodge, Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Ecuador.

    • Order Ephemeroptera – Mayflies

    Similar to Ephemeroptera but wings are held over the abdomen. No abdominal filaments.

    • Order Neuroptera – Antlions, Lacewings, and Allies

    Similar to Neuroptera but with two or three abdominal short filaments.

    • Order Plecoptera – Stoneflies

    Wings held rooflike over abdomen. Large head. Sucking, piercing mouthparts.

     

  • The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador

    The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador

    The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador.

    The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador are definitely one of the easy animals we find during our experience in the Amazon Rainforest.

    The Butterflies in the Amazon Rainforest are active all year round, all different species living in different niches and habitats throughout the forest.

    They go under metamorphosis: starting from a resting egg, usually laid next to their host plant; later hutch into a larva or into an eating machine that keeps stretching; later internal changes go wild at the protein level to finally emerge as a new adult butterfly.

    Where to find butterflies in the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador?

    We can find them from early in the morning: the Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest are active and ready to go!

    We will locate them inside the forest whether resting on a leaf or taking gentle samplings of bird poop or sipping into ripe fruits -the rotten ones are the best!- fallen from the canopy as a leftover from canopy wildlife.

    We will find them everywhere in the forest.

    The coloration of the Butterflies in the Amazon Rainforest is an important survival feature, the position of the scales in the wings can be found in all the color combinations possible, a remarkable adaptation to establish in all the forest niches.

    Watch the Video Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador 

    The clouds of Butterflies are often seen on the canoe rides along the Shiripuno River, another colorful experience, all of them end up coming to the Amazonian River sandbars and scouting for mineral accumulations left behind by other wildlife such as capybaras, birds, or reptiles.

    We can see them from the canoe when feeding along the sandbars of the Shiripuno River, sometimes in large and colorful groups flying over the river.

    The most famous Butterfly of the Amazon Rainforest is the impressively sized Blue Morphos, named after Morpheus the Greek God for the Dream. This huge butterfly it’s easy to be recognized by the huge splash of electric blue you will see in the forest.

    We would like to nominate all the Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest Butterflies as “Honorary Vertebrates”.

    The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest Butterflies as “Honorary Vertebrates”

     

    View this post on Instagram

     

    The Blue Morpho Butterfly Blue Morpho Butterflies are Not Technically Blue Turns out the Blue Morpho’s wings are not actually blue at all! Of course, they certainly appear this way, but this is not the result of pigmentation. It is actually caused by the way light reflects off the microscopic scales on its wings. The scales are diamond-shaped and the color results from their specific formation and placement on the wing membranes. This is a phenomenon known as iridescence, a type of optical illusion which describes how hues change according to the angle from which they are viewed. #BlueMorpho #BlueButterfly #AmazonButterfly #ButterflyScales #SumacoÑahui #Yasuni #YasuniWilderness #ShiripunoLodge #YasuniNationalPark #YasuniWildlife #Ecuador #Crowdfunding #Conservation

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    Blue Morpho Butterfly

    The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador
    Common Blue Morpho Butterfly in the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Shiripuno River, Ecuador

    The Blue Morpho belongs to the genus Morpho, which is a huge butterfly with a flash of electric blue you will see on our boat trip, or during hikes on trails, the Blue Morpho with a wingspan of about 4 inches long.

    Their wings express the Best Technology in nature to reflect light with energy efficiency.

    They feed on falling rotting fruit on the ground it can be in front of you, and you won’t see it, because it eats with its wing close to melting in the background color of the floors.

    The Blue Morpho caterpillars defend themselves with a defensive smell.

    Amazon Owl Butterfly

    The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador
    Amazon Owl Butterfly in the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Shiripuno River, Ecuador

    The Amazon Owl Butterflies belong to the genus Caligo, a huge brown butterfly, active at crepuscular times of the day, they are known for their huge eyespots on their hindwing, which resemble owls’ eyes.

    During adulthood, it feeds on rotting fruits, and in the larvae stage, they feed on the Heliconias plant.  They are found in all the habitats of the Amazon Rainforests in Ecuador.

    Rhetus Butterfly

    The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador
    Rhetus butterflies in the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Shiripuno River, Ecuador

    Rhetus butterflies are usually found singly or in very low numbers, in the vicinity of streams or rivers.

    Thirsty for Minerals! It can also be found along tracks through the primary or disturbed rainforest or cloudforest habitats.

    The butterfly occurs at elevations between 0-1800m and flies throughout the year.

    Haetera Piera Butterfly

    The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador
    Haetera Piera Butterfly in the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Shiripuno River, Ecuador

    The Haetera Piera Butterfly is a glass-winged butterfly. Almost nothing is known about the caterpillar stages of this butterfly and little is known about the whole butterfly tribe this species belongs to, the Haeterini.

    The butterflies fly close to the ground and are widespread across South America’s lowland forests. They have a subtle coloration over their transparent wings, which are each patterned with two eye spots.

    Sulphur Butterflies Puddle Drinking

    The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador
    The Sulphur Butterflies in the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Shiripuno River, Ecuador

    Sulfur butterflies, known as pierids as they’re in the Pieridae family, are often seen around puddles of water and include around 70 different species throughout the Neotropics.

    The butterflies aren’t just after water but important minerals like sodium.

    A favorite photograph for Amazon Rainforest tourists to capture, you can sometimes see butterflies drinking from the eyes of aquatic reptiles like turtles and caiman.

    Kite Swallowtail

    The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador
    Eurytides Butterfly in the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, Shiripuno River, Ecuador

    Safety in Numbers

    These are kite swallowtails in the Eurytides genus that often join sulfur butterflies as they do their puddling behavior.

    They too drink the water to obtain different minerals and can be distinguished from the sulfurs by their tails and black markings.

    It’s safer for butterflies to drink in groups as they benefit from safety in numbers.

    If a predator attacks these highly conspicuous animals, a single butterfly in a group is less likely to be eaten than if drinking alone.

    The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador
    The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador

    Butterfly Watching in Ecuador

    You can go Butterfly Watching in Ecuador in any direction: from the towering Andes to the dense Amazonian rainforest, Ecuador is incredibly diverse.

    Ecuador is arguably the butterfly capital of the world!

    Ecuador contains approximately 2850 species in the families Papilionidae, Pieridae, Nymphalidae, Riodinidae, and Lycaenidae.

    About 50-55% of all Neotropical species in these groups (25% of the World’s species), turning Ecuador into one of the world’s three most diverse countries, along with Colombia and Peru.

    The Butterflies’ Families, Genera, and Species of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador:

    NYMPHALIDAE

    The Nymphalidae are the largest family of butterflies with more than 6,000 species distributed throughout most of the world, belonging to the superfamily Papilionoidea.

    These are usually medium-sized to large butterflies.

    Most species have a reduced pair of forelegs and many hold their colorful wings flat when resting.

    They are also called brush-footed butterflies or four-footed butterflies because they are known to stand on only four legs while the other two are curled up; in some species, these forelegs have a brush-like set of hairs, which gives this family its other common name.

    Many species are brightly colored and include popular species such as the emperors, monarch butterflies, admirals, tortoiseshells, and fritillaries.

    However, the underwings are, in contrast, often dull and in some species look remarkably like dead leaves, or are much paler, producing a cryptic effect that helps the butterflies blend into their surroundings.

    Many-banded Daggerwing (Marpesia chiron)
    Nymphalidae.
    Butterflies of Ecuador
    Many-banded Daggerwing (Marpesia chiron). Nymphalidae. Garzcocha (La Selva Lodge), Ecuador

    • The Walter Daggerwing, Marpesia zerynthia

    • Ruddy Daggerwing, Marpesia petreus

    • Amber Daggerwing, Marpesia berania

    • Livius Daggerwing, Marpesia livius

    • Pansy Daggerwing, Marpesia marcella

    • Sunset Daggerwing, Marpesia furcula

    • Banded-white Ringlet, Pareuptychia ocirrhoe

    • 89 Butterfly Diaethria, clymena

    • Blue-and-Orange 88, Callicore molina

    • Cyane Emperor, Doxocopa cyane

    • Doris Longwing, Heliconius doris

    • Malachite, Siproeta stelenes

    • Rusty-tipped Page, Siproeta epaphus

    • Midnight Purplewing, Eunica norica

    • Orange Admiral, Hypanartia lethe

    • Clearwing-mimic, Queen Lycorea ilione

    • Orea Banner, Epiphile orea

    • Orange-banded Emperor, Doxocopa elis

    • Thessalia Sister, Adelpha thessalia

    • Cocala Sister, Adelpha cocala

    • Blue Aeilus, Baeotus aeilus

    • Dazzling Glasswing, Godryis duillia

    • Rose-colored Cytharia puerta

    • Scarlet Peacock, Anartia omathea

    • Julia Heliconia, Dryas julia

    • Pastazena Crescent, Tegosa pastazena

    • Pink-bodied Altinote, Altinote neleus

    • Orange-bodied Altinote, Altinote alcione

    LYCAENIDAE

    Lycaenidae is the second-largest family of butterflies (behind Nymphalidae, brush-footed butterflies), with over 6,000 species worldwide, whose members are also called gossamer-winged butterflies. They constitute about 30% of the known butterfly species.

    Adults are small, under 5 cm usually, and brightly colored, sometimes with a metallic gloss.

    Larvae are often flattened rather than cylindrical, with glands that may produce secretions that attract and subdue ants. Their cuticles tend to be thickened. Some larvae are capable of producing vibrations and low sounds that are transmitted through the substrates they inhabit. They use these sounds to communicate with ants.

    Adult individuals often have hairy antenna-like tails complete with a black and white annulated (ringed) appearance. Many species also have a spot at the base of the tail and some turn around upon landing to confuse potential predators from recognizing the true head orientation. This causes predators to approach from the true head end resulting in early visual detection.

    The Butterflies of the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador
    Arawacus separata

    • Striped Hairstreak Arawacus separata

    RIODINIDAE

    The Riodinidae are members of the Superfamily Papilionoidea, the true butterflies. They typically thrive in tropical latitudes, especially those of the Americas, and approximately 1,300 species are known.

    Small to medium in size, metalmarks vary widely in their patterns, behavior, and postures. Males have reduced front legs that are not used for walking, and females have three pairs of walking legs.

    Adults usually perch with their wings spread open or cocked slightly, while many tropical species habitually perch upside down on large leaves.

    Males locate mates by perching, rather than patrolling. Egg shape varies widely, but caterpillars are typically slug-shaped. Metalmarks overwinter in the larval or pupal stage.

    • Neurodes Metalmark Siseme reurodes

    • Aulestes Swordtail Ancyluris aulestes

    • Black-edged Bluemark Lasaia moeros

    PIERIDAE

    The Pieridae are a large family of butterflies most pierid butterflies are white, yellow, or orange in coloration, often with black spots.

    The pigments that give the distinct coloring to these butterflies are derived from waste products in the body and are characteristic of this family.
    The sexes usually differ, often in the pattern or number of the black markings.
    The larvae (caterpillars) of a few of these species, commonly seen in gardens, feed on brassicas and are notorious agricultural pests.
    Males of many species exhibit gregarious mud-puddling behavior when they may imbibe salts from moist soils.

    • Philoma White Leptophobia philoma

    • Salmon-lined White Perrhybris lorena

    • Tailed Sulphur Phoebis neocypris

    • Mimosa Yellow Pyrisitia nise

    PAPILIONIDAE

    The Papilionidae belong to the Superfamily Papilionoidea, the true butterflies. Swallowtails are worldwide in distribution and comprise approximately 560 species.

    They are the richest in the tropics, and their brilliant colors make them the favorites of butterfly enthusiasts.

    Many swallowtail species, especially in the tropics, mimic other butterflies that are distasteful, while others are distasteful and cause birds and other vertebrate predators to regurgitate.

    Swallowtail adults are medium to large and may or may not have tails, while parnassian adults are medium, tailless, and have translucent wings.

    All adult parnassians and swallowtails have three pairs of walking legs, and adults of all species visit flowers for nectar.

    • Lycidas Swallowtail Batis lycidas

    • King Page Swallowtail Heraclides thoas

    • Dioxippus Kite Swallowtail Neographium dioxippus

    HESPERIIDAE

    Skippers are a family, Hesperiidae, of the Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies). Being diurnal, they are generally called butterflies.

    They were previously placed in a separate superfamily, Hesperioidea; however, the most recent taxonomy places the family in the superfamily Papilionoidea.

    They are named for their quick, darting flight habits.

    Most have the antenna tip modified into a narrow hook-like projection.

    More than 3500 species of skippers are recognized, and they occur worldwide, but with the greatest diversity in the Neotropical regions of Central and South America.

    • Velvet Anastrus Anastrus baterias

    • Common Anastrus Anastrus sempiternus

    • Two-barred Flasher Astraptes fulgerator

    • Cryptic Mylon Mylon cajus

    • Passova Firetip Passova passova

    • Teleus Longtail Urbanus teleus

    • Split-banded Firetip Jemadia hewitsonii

    • Violaceous Bent-skipper Cycloglypha thrasibulus

     

    butterfly watching tours
    Come and Join Us on Our Butterfly of Ecuador Tour!! We visit all the major ecoregions such as the Andes, Amazon Rainforest, Cloud forest, Beach
  • The Yasuni National Park

    The Yasuni National Park

    The Yasuni National Park in Ecuador is one of the most biodiverse place on Earth.

    The Yasuni National Park have an amazing diversity of Insects. Watch a daily activity in the forest, always improving for the challenges. Clear Winged Butterfly Gene crossing in the most biodiverse on Earth!

    A Journey to the Diversity of Life!

    The Yasuni National Park (PNY) is located in the Provinces of Orellana and Pastaza in Eastern Ecuador, a tiny spot in the Western Amazon Basin, it is arguably as one of the most biodiverse place on Earth.

    The Yasuni National Park Information

    Yasuni Habitats
    Yasuni Habitats

    The Yasuni National Park was established 26 July 1979, between the Napo and Curaray rivers. It is the biggest conservation unit Ecuador, encompasses an extension of 1´022.736 hectares of Tropical Evergreen Forest, with an Altitudinal Range between:190 – 400 meters.

    Ocelot in the Yasuni National Park in Ecuador.
    Ocelot in the Yasuni National Park in Ecuador.

    The Yasuni National Park contains an amazing Diversity of Life, visible on its flora and fauna. There are amazing numbers!, for example, more than 200 mammalian species, more than 650 bird species, more than 120 species of reptiles, more than 147 amphibian species and more than 600 fish species. The Yasuni National Park is the core area of the Biosphere Reserve created 1989 by the UNESCO.

    The Yasuni National Park Rivers.

    Many rivers in the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve are rich in sediments.

    The rivers inside the reserve started at the end of the Andean Foothills at altitudes from 300 meters to 600 meters above sea level; the most important rivers that flow through the park are: Napo, Yasuní, Cononaco, Nashiño and Tiputini.

    The Yasuni National Park Oxbow Lakes

    Oxbow Lake
    Oxbow Lake

    The most important Oxbow Lakes through the park were created by the Napo River, all of them with black water systems: Añangucocha (Leaf-cutters Ant Lake), Yuturicocha, Pañacocha (Piranha Lake) and Jatuncocha .
    Weather and Rainfall

    Office in Coca

    Yasuni National Park in Ecuador.
    Yasuni National Park in Ecuador.

    Calles Bolívar and Amazonas. Puerto Francisco de Orellana (Coca).
    Province of Orellana.
    Phone: (06) 288-2500
    New Rocafuerte Office: (06) 238 2141.

    People living the Yasuní National Park

    The People living in the Yasuní National Park is a mosaic of ethnics groups with different lifestyles, all connected with the forest as their main source of food and supplies. and lately internal migration from other places to Ecuador come to work.

    The Waorani People feeds from the forest directly, it provide them food, shelter, family.

    The entire area between the Napo and Curaray rivers was home to a semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer: The Waorani People, lived throughout the area, hunting, collecting fruits and keeping small crops; in 1969 they were confined and grouped in an area that was called “protectorate”, located in the headwaters of the Curaray River. Some Clans that did not accept to live in the protectorate nor renounce their type of life are the seed of the Indigenous Peoples in Voluntary Isolation: The Tagaeri and Taromenane People.

    Today, to the west of the park extends the Waorani Territory, which covers only a part of its ancestral territory, while the northern part of the Yasuní is concessioned to several oil companies.

    The Kichwa People live in the northern part of the park along the Napo River is an itinerant population of dedicated to ecotourism, guides, students and researchers working at the two scientific stations that are located inside the park and in its buffer zone.

    The Yasuni National Park Facts

    The Shiripuno River is the deepest place to explore today.

    The Yasuni National Park is located in the Napo Basin, a funnel shaped basin with 98445 Km2. Originates in the eastern of the Ecuadorian Andes and expands southeast to the convergence of the Napo and the Marañon Rivers in Peru.

    The annual rainfall in the Yasuni National Park can reach 3800 mm with an average monthly rain of 260 mm.
    The wettest month is, usually, July with 400 mm and the driest is December with 130 mm.

    The rainfall seasonality in the Yasuni National Park is bimodal. In other words, there are two wet seasons, one between March and July, and the other between October and November.

    The mean annual temperature is 25.5 °C with a mean maximum temperature of 30 °C and a minimum of 23 °C. November, December and January are the hottest months whereas July is the coldest.
    The relative humidity is high during the whole year. In the dry season, the annual mean humidity is about 83% while in the rainy season is almost 90%.

    The Yasuni National Park Oil Drilling

    Oil blocks and oil access-roads of the Yasuni region

    Oil exploitation affects local communities’ social practices and the natural ecosystem.
    The Yasuni National Park curse is an estimated 1.7 billion barrels of crude oil – 40% of Ecuador’s reserves – in the Ishpingo-Tiputini-Tambococha (ITT) oil fields
    The Yasuni National Park Map

    The Yasuni National Park Tours

    Tourism in the Yasuni National Park
    Tourism in the Yasuni National Park

    The best way to explore the Diversity of Life of the Yasuni National Park is by taking all different types of tours offered, Check below a short description.

    Exploring, expending time in the Yasuni will help us to understand the most biodiverse on Earth.

    Nature Tours

    The best Nature Tours to explore the Diversity of Life of the Yasuni National Park, start from Coca, Orellana Ecuador. Check below a short description.
    4 Days
    5 Days
    8 Days

    Birding Tours

    The best Birding Tours to explore the Diversity of Birdlife of the Yasuni National Park, start from Coca, Orellana Ecuador. Check below a short description.
    4 Days
    5 Days
    8 Days

    Wildlife Photo Tours

    The best Wildlife Photo Tours to explore the Diversity of Life of the Yasuni National Park, start from Coca, Orellana Ecuador. Check below a short description.
    4 Days
    5 Days
    8 Days

    Cultural Experience

    The best Cultural Experiences to explore the Diversity of Life of the Yasuni National Park, start from Coca, Orellana Ecuador. Check below a short description.
    4 Days
    5 Days
    8 Days

    Adventure Tour

    The best Adventure Tour to explore the Diversity of Life of the Yasuni National Park, start from Coca, Orellana Ecuador. Check below a short description.
    4 Days
    5 Days
    8 Days

    The Yasuni National Park Biodiversity

    The distribution of amphibian, bird, mammal, and vascular plant species across South America demonstrate the Yasuni National Park unique biogeographic position where species richness of all four taxonomic groups reach diversity maxima.

    The Yasuni National Park holds a world record of 150 amphibian species,121 reptiles species 382 fish species documented.

    Yasuní Broad-headed Treefrog (Osteocephalus yasuní). A new species of the hylid frog genus Osteocephalus from the upper Amazon Basin
    of Ecuador and Peru is described. It most closely resembles 0, planiceps, but it differs in the
    absence of pale stripes on the heels and above the vent, in being smaller, and lacking brown spots
    on the Hanks. The new species, O. yasuni, is unique within Osteocephalus in having extensive yellow
    ventral coloration.

    The Yasuni National Park is home to at least 596 bird species which comprises one-third of the total native bird species for the Amazon.

    The park is also very rich with many species of bats.
    On a regional scale, the Amazon Basin has an estimated 117 bat species but on a local scale,

    Lophostoma_carrikeri-yasuni_synonymy-2016_Camacho-Chávez-Burne

    Yasuni is estimated to have comparable richness.
    In a single hectare, Yasuni has over 100,000 different species of insects which is roughly the amount of insect species that can be found in all of North America.
    It is one of nine places in the world that has over 4,000 vascular plant species per 10,000 km2.
    The park contains many species of trees and shrubs and holds at least four world records for documented tree and liana richness and for diversity in woody plant species.

    The park also hosts a list of endemic species such as 43 different species of vertebrates and between 220-720 different plant species.

    The Yasuni National Park Animals

    Mammals

    The Mammals of the Yasuni National Park is very well represented with 5 species of cats like Jaguar, puma, Ocelot, 12 species of monkeys, including the Pygmy Marmoset and the Yellow-bellied Spider Monkey, Giant Armadillo, Giant Anteater, Giant Otter, Lowland Tapir, Sloth and many other unique mammals from the Amazon Rainforest.

    Giant Anteater. Yasuni Biosphere Reserve in Ecuador.

    Birds

    The Birds of the Yasuni National Park represents a third of all the Amazonian bird fauna with Macaws, Toucans, Harpy Eagle, Fiery Topaz, Rufous Potoo, Salvin’s Curassow, Antbird, Woodcreepers, motmots and many other birds from the Amazon Rainforest.

    Blue-throated Piping Guan is the most hunted species for the taste of its meat.

    Treefrogs

    The Frogs and other amphibian of the Yasuni National Park have world record, with Smoky Jungle, Gladiator Treefrog, Yasuní broad-headed Treefrog, Green Glass Tree Frog, Ringed Caecilian and many others frogs from the Amazon Rainforest.

    Amazon Tree Frog. Yasuni Biosphere Reserve in Ecuador.el

    Insects

    The Insects and other invertebrates of the Yasuni National Park are well represented by butterflies such as Morpho, the Owl butterfly, Heliconius, many species of Dung Beetles, tons of ants everywhere, Watch out for the Bullet Ant.

    Amazon Rainforest Insects. Yasuni Biosphere Reserve in Ecuador.

    Snakes

    The Snakes and other reptilians of the Yasuni National Park are represented by Anaconda, Boa constrictor, Bushmaster, Emerald Tree Boa, Coral Snake and many other Amazon Rainforest Snakes.

    Bushmaster molting: notice the whitish eye. Yasuni Biosphere Reserve. Photo by our guide Daniel Hicks

    The Yasuni National Park Plants

    The Flora of the Yasuni National Park consist of many emblematics species of tree such as Ceiba, the largest tree in the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador, Mahogany Tree, Red Cedar tree, Rubber Tree, Balsa Tree, and of course many lianas such as Curare to make hunting poison or Ayahuasca to connect with Mother Nature and many other medicinal plants use by indigenous people.

    Heliconias

    Heliconias are far relatives of bananas, can be easily confused for the shape of the leaves, when flowering it attracts several species of hummingbirds from a special group of the Amazon Rainforest: The Hermits.

    Heliconia
    HELICONIACEAE

    Passiflora

    The Passiflora or Passion Vines are bright colored flowers inside the forest, many species of butterflies from the family Heliconidae come to laid eggs on its fresh leaves.

    Passiflora
    PASSIFLORACEAE

    Centropogon

    The Centropogon genus is represented for several species, all of the seems to attract hummingbirds.

    Centropogon
    CAMPANULACEAE
  • Waorani: The Nomads of the Rainforest

    Waorani: The Nomads of the Rainforest

    The Waorani People: The Nomads of the Rainforest and their Lifestyle.

    The Waorani People are one of the last Nomads of the Rainforest of Ecuador living for hundreds of years along the Western Amazon Basin between Ecuador and Peru, the Waorani People made a home inside the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, a unique place in the Amazon.

    Yasuni is known for its super high Diversity of Life. It is not surprising to think, about the possibility to find people living in synchronization with this rich ecosystem.

    The Nomads of the Rainforest

    The Nomads of  Rainforest are the Waorani People and their closest kins: Tagaeri People and Taromenane People.

    These last two groups are still wandering in depth of the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve, living the way it means to be thousands of years ago, they represent thousands of years of Amazon Rainforest knowledge and experience for mankind.

    The Nomads of the Rainforest in Ecuador.

    The Waorani House is built with forest materials easy to replace and find. Such as palm leaves, medium-sized tree trunks, and lianas.

    The Waorani People are moving all the time, from one place to another, using and cultivating the forest resources and always planning where to move next.

    Expanding and controlling their territories is an important activity to maintain constant access to Les fruits de la forêt: wild game and fruits.

    The Nature of the Rainforest is everything for them, the forest provides them all: shelter, food, love, friends, spirits, and gods.

    Waorani Lifestyle

    Nomads of the Rainforest
    Nomads of the Rainforest

    The Waorani are Hunters-and-Gathers from the Amazon Rainforest in Ecuador, a millenarian lifestyle of humankind from all ancient tribes around the globe.

    These nomadic Lifestyles combine with the high productivity of the Yasuni Biosphere Reserve allow them to pick the best of tropical forest production.

    After the seasonal hunting and gathering they would embark into new lands to find a new living location in the immensity of the forest, once they find it, new plans come along with it and basic farming is the first activity do when a new spot to live was found.

     

    The Nomads of the Rainforest have a different approach to live needs, on doing things only because they like them or they need it to be done to continue living in harmony with the forest itself.

    The Nomads of the Rainforest

    The Waorani People Today
    The Waorani People Today

    Today the Last Nomads of the Rainforest are connected with the Western World after a systematic culturalization process carries out by modern times.

    During his process the Waorani people lost 50% of their ancestral land, this land is given to oil companies to pay democratic debts and forest fragmentation for palm plantations.